Efficacy of Low-Dose Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole for the Treatment o

Introduction

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) is a life-threatening complication in recipients of strong organ transplantation with a reported incidence of 0.6%–15%. The mortality fee for PJP can attain 50% regardless of aggressive antibiotic remedy.^1–3

Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) is taken into account the first-choice remedy for PJP in renal transplant recipients.⁴ The usual dosage is 15–20 mg/kg of TMP and 75–100 mg/kg of SMX per day administered 3–Four instances a day intravenously or orally.⁵ This dose is sadly related to extreme opposed results, corresponding to cytopenias (leucopenia and thrombocytopenia), elevated serum creatinine, hyperkalemia, and gastrointestinal signs. These opposed occasions should not at all times well-tolerated and typically end in discontinuation of remedy.^6,7 As well as, the minimal inhibitory focus (MIC) of TMP-SMX in opposition to P. jirovecii an infection has not been standardized.⁸

Some stories have prompt that dose discount of TMP-SMX may cut back the danger of opposed occasions whereas retaining efficacy within the remedy of PJP. Li et al decreased the dose of TMP-SMX for renal transplant recipients with PJP that skilled insupportable gastrointestinal negative effects and nonetheless achieved a excessive restoration fee of 83%.⁹ Equally, Tu et al efficiently handled three circumstances of extreme PJP in renal transplant recipients with mixture caspofungin and low-dose TMP-SMX (480 mg q8h).¹⁰

Within the absence of randomized managed trials, the optimum dosage of TMP-SMX in PJP stays unknown, and the present literature stories conflicting outcomes. The current research aimed to evaluate the efficacy of low-dose TMP-SMX for PJP remedy in recipients of a deceased donor kidney.

Supplies and Strategies

Enrollment of Members

The current retrospective, single-center cohort research enrolled grownup deceased donor kidney recipients on the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao College (Qingdao, China) between January 2015 and June 2020. Rabbit anti-human thymocyte immunoglobulin (rATG), basiliximab, or ATG-F-Fresenius (ATG-F) have been used to stop quick transplant rejection, and tacrolimus, mycophenolic acid (MPA), and prednisone have been used to take care of immunosuppression thereafter. The inclusion standards in response to the institutional protocol have been as follows: i) Chinese language ethnicity; ii) acquired kidney transplant from a deceased donor; iii) skilled PJP after transplantation; and iv) handled with TMP-SMX. Sufferers who acquired a simultaneous non-renal transplant, who have been misplaced to comply with up, or who used any experimental medicines have been excluded.

The donated organs have been obtained with full knowledgeable consent from the subsequent of kin of the donor. Kidney donations have been performed in accordance with the Declaration of Istanbul. This research was accepted by the Ethics Committee of the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao College (Qingdao, China; no. QYFYWZLL 26483). All procedures involving human members have been in accordance with the moral requirements of the institutional and nationwide analysis committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethics requirements. Written knowledgeable consent was obtained from all particular person members included on this research.

Immunization and Prophylaxis Program

The induction routine consisted of 5 doses of rATG and two doses of basiliximab or ATG-F. If rATG was administered, then 50 mg was administered on post-operative day (POD) Zero and 25 mg on PODs 1, 2 and three. If basiliximab was administered, then it was administered on PODs Zero and 4. ATG-F was administered as described beforehand.¹¹ Upkeep remedy with oral tacrolimus, MPA, corticosteroids, and prophylaxis for P. jiroveci and cytomegalovirus (CMV) additionally was administered as described beforehand.¹¹

Analysis of PJP

The prognosis of PJP was made when Pneumocystis cysts or trophozoites have been detected in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid or sputum samples utilizing Gomori’s methenamine silver staining (GMS) and sufferers’ computed tomography (CT) scans confirmed diffuse, patchy, and cloud-like density shadows with ground-glass-like morphology that have been symmetrical and apically distributed in each lungs (Figure 1).

Determine 1 Consultant CT photos from 4 sufferers through the preliminary part of PJP, all exhibiting ground-glass opacities within the apexes of each lungs. (A) PJP occurred 10 months after renal transplantation (RT) in a 35-year-old male recipient. CT confirmed ground-glass opacities within the apexes of each lungs. (B) PJP occurred 10 months after RT in a 47-year-old male recipient. CT confirmed a lower within the transmittance of the 2 lungs, and diffuse ground-glass opacities within the apexes. (C) PJP occurred 13 months after RT in a 40-year-old male recipient. CT confirmed ground-glass opacities within the apexes of each lungs. (D) PJP occurred 1 month after anti-rejection remedy (14 months after RT) in a 43-year-old feminine recipient. CT confirmed elevated clouding and ground-glass opacities within the apexes, and the sides have been unclear.

Therapy of PJP

All sufferers included within the current research have been handled with oral TMP–SMX at dosages of 480/2400 mg per day divided into Three doses, or at dosages of 240/1200 mg per day divided into Three doses as beforehand reported10 when the serum creatinine ranges exceed 2 mg/dl. The antifungal medicine caspofungin (50 mg) was administered as soon as a day. Carbapenems or third technology cephalosporin was used as prophylaxis in opposition to bacterial an infection. Methylprednisolone was intravenously administered at a dose of 20 mg q12h, and at a dose of 40 mg q12h in critically ailing sufferers with respiratory failure. Calcineurin inhibitor was repeatedly infused, and the focus was maintained at round 5 ng/mL. Relying on the severity of the illness, mycophenolic acid was decreased or discontinued. Oxygen was delivered through nasal cannula or oxygen masks, and even invasive air flow if essential. CT scanning was carried out each 5–7 days to evaluate the development of the pulmonary lesions.

Endpoint Definitions

The first endpoints have been the charges of affected person and graft survival. Secondary endpoints included the charges of invasive air flow and opposed results, corresponding to cytopenia (leucopenia and thrombocytopenia), elevated serum creatinine, hyperkalemia, and gastrointestinal discomfort.

Statistical Evaluation

Knowledge for steady variables are expressed as imply ± commonplace deviation if usually distributed or as median (vary) if non-normally distributed. All statistical analyses have been carried out utilizing SPSS 23 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY).

Outcomes

Medical Traits of Examine Members

Thirty-seven of the 1098 deceased donor kidney recipients screened between January 2015 and June 2018 have been included within the remaining evaluation. The demographic traits of those sufferers are offered in Table 1. The common age of the included sufferers was 45.9±10.1 years (vary, 27–64 years). Out of the 37 sufferers, 26 have been male (70.3%) and 11 have been feminine (29.7%).

Desk 1 Demographic Traits, Signs, Remedies and Outcomes

Medical Shows of Kidney Transplant Recipients

Nearly all of the kidney transplant recipients (86.5%, 950/1098) acquired PJP prophylaxis with TMP-SMX for six months, whereas 13.5% (148/1098) didn’t obtain or discontinued TMP-SMX inside Three months after transplantation attributable to insupportable opposed results corresponding to an elevated serum creatinine degree or extreme leukopenia. Not one of the included sufferers have been receiving TMP-SMX on the time when PJP occurred. The median time to prevalence of PJP after renal transplantation among the many included sufferers was 7 months (vary, 2–16 months). Onset of PJP occurred inside 6 months after renal transplantation in 37.8% (14/37) of the sufferers, inside 6–12 months in 51.4% (19/37) of the sufferers, and after greater than 1 12 months in 10.8% (4/37) of the sufferers. PJP occurred inside 1 month after immunosuppressant remedy in 5.4% (2/37) of sufferers. The median time from onset of signs to remedy was Four days (vary, 1–35 days). The most typical symptom was fever (28/37, 75.7%), adopted by progressive dyspnea (15/37, 40.5%), and dry cough (10/37, 27.0%; Table 1).

Imaging Options of PJP in Kidney Transplant Recipients Handled with Low-Dose TMP-SMX

Through the preliminary phases of PJP, the sufferers’ lung imaging modifications have been as described above. Air bronchogram was current in 16.2% (6/37) of the sufferers, and eight.1% (3/37) offered with a number of nodules within the mediastinum (Table 2). Pulmonary lesions have been improved on CT scans after 5–6 days of remedy and considerably improved after 10 days in most sufferers. Full absorption of the lesions or residual fibrosis was seen on CT scans throughout follow-up at 1–2 months after remedy (Figure 2).

Desk 2 Laboratory and Radiological Findings

Determine 2 Consultant CT photos from a 28-year-old male affected person that underwent deceased donor renal transplantation after 6 years of hemodialysis. The photographs present the change in CT options earlier than and after remedy for PJP. (A) Indicators of PJP appeared 11 months after renal transplantation. CT confirmed ground-glass opacities in each lungs within the first medical go to. (B) 5 days after remedy, CT confirmed slight enchancment of the pulmonary lesion. (C) Ten days after remedy, CT confirmed additional enchancment of the pulmonary lesion. (D) One month after remedy, CT confirmed full absorption of the pulmonary lesion.

Sputum smears have been carried out in all included sufferers on the time of admission, however PJP was solely detected in 5.4% (2/37) of the sufferers. The detection fee was considerably greater when induced sputum or BAL was carried out. Cysts and trophozoites have been detected by GMS in 76.5% (13/17) of the sufferers subjected to induced sputum testing, and 80.0% (24/30) of the sufferers that underwent BAL (Table 2).

Laboratory Check Leads to Kidney Transplant Recipients with PJP Handled Utilizing Low-Dose TMP-SMX

Elevated 1,3-β-D-glucan ranges have been seen in 83.8% (31/37) of the sufferers and the median degree was 353 pg/mL (<10–1288 pg/mL). Elevated lactate dehydrogenase ranges, with a median degree of 260 mmol/L (107–449 mmol/L) have been present in 59.5% (22/37) of the sufferers. Decreased lymphocyte counts with a imply worth of 0.83±0.44 ×10⁹/L have been current in 81.1% (30/37) of the sufferers. Elevated white blood cell counts have been present in solely 16.2% (6/37) of the sufferers, and the imply worth was 7.03±2.76 × 10⁹/L. CMV was detected in 16.2% (6/37) of the sufferers, and 5.4% (2/37) of the sufferers have been optimistic for BK virus (Table 2).

Medical Outcomes and Antagonistic Results of Low-Dose TMP-SMX Therapy for PJP in Kidney Transplant Recipients

The survival charges of sufferers and grafts have been each 100%. The median size of hospital keep was 15 days (7–99 days; Table 1); 48.6% (18/37) of the sufferers have been discharged inside 2 weeks; and 35.1% (13/37) of the sufferers have been discharged after 2–Three weeks (Table 1). Solely 5.4% (2/37) of the sufferers required invasive air flow (Table 1). Gastrointestinal discomfort was skilled by 21.6% (8/37) of the sufferers, and the signs improved following utilization of proton pump inhibitors and mucosal protecting brokers. The frequencies of hematologic negative effects, hyperkalemia, and transient impaired kidney operate have been 5.4% (2/37), 2.7% (1/37), and a pair of.7% (1/37), respectively (Table 1). No circumstances required dose discount of TMP-SMX or remedy discontinuation attributable to opposed results.

Dialogue

There isn’t a consensus on the optimum dose of TMP-SMX for the remedy of PJP in renal transplant recipients. TMP-SMX is related to numerous extreme opposed occasions that aren’t well-tolerated by some renal transplant recipients. Discovering the bottom attainable efficient dose with the very best opposed occasion profile is subsequently of scientific significance. The current research presents proof that low-dose TMP-SMX can present enough safety in opposition to PJP with a low incidence of opposed results in deceased donor kidney recipients.

In line with earlier stories, the incidence of PJP was highest inside 6 months after renal transplantation after intensifying immunosuppression.^5,9 The Kidney Illness Enhancing International Outcomes (KDIGO) and Kidney Well being Australia Caring for Australians with Renal Impairment (KHA-CARI) tips advocate administering TMP-SMX for 3–6 months after kidney transplantation to stop PJP.^12,13 Within the current research, all recipients acquired TMP-SMX as PJP prophylaxis for six–12 months (86.5% of the sufferers acquired TMP-SMX for six months) until extreme leukopenia or kidney dysfunction (serum creatinine degree exceeding 2 mg/dl) have been current. This is perhaps why 62.2% (23/37) of the sufferers developed PJP greater than 6 months after transplantation. When TMP-SMX (80 mg/400 mg) was administered for 12 months after transplantation, the median time to onset of PJP was 17 months after transplantation and solely 23.1% (3/13) recipients developed PJP inside 1 12 months.¹⁴ Plainly the time from transplantation to PJP onset varies relying on the prevention program of every heart and is delayed when the prophylaxis time is prolonged.

Elevated 1,3-β-D-glucan ranges have been seen in 83.8% (31/37) of the sufferers. Beta-D-glucan is a principal structural part of P. jirovecii and the detection of beta-D-glucan has a excessive diagnostic worth in HIV-infected sufferers.¹⁵ Elevated serum beta-D-glucan concentrations have been additionally confirmed to be a great noninvasive indicator of P. jirovecii an infection in renal transplant sufferers in response to a earlier research.¹⁶ It can’t be ignored that 1,3-β-D-glucan ranges weren’t elevated in 6 of the sufferers within the current research. Though the sensitivity and specificity of beta-D-glucan fluctuate in response to variations in diagnostic standards, detection time and cut-off worth, these sufferers is perhaps simply colonized and never actually contaminated with P. jirovecii. The scientific relevance of beta-D-glucan must be explored in bigger research in renal transplant sufferers.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) an infection is taken into account to be an impartial non-immunological threat issue for PJP.¹⁷ It has been reported that just about half of the kidney transplant recipients (46%) that undergo from PJP have skilled a earlier or simultaneous CMV an infection.¹⁴ Within the current research, 16.2% (6/37) of the sufferers skilled a simultaneous CMV an infection. CMV alters host immune responses by quite a lot of mechanisms, finally suppressing the capabilities of helper T and antigen-presenting cells.¹⁸ Due to this fact, one opportunistic an infection in a transplant recipient ought to set off an intensive seek for one other one.³

TMP-SMX is the first-line remedy for PJP each in HIV sufferers and non-HIV sufferers.^4,19 Oral TMP–SMX remedy has glorious bioavailability and excellent effectiveness and is broadly utilized in scientific follow, however intravenous administration of TMP–SMX has additionally been reported in sufferers with delicate to extreme PJP.²⁰ The really helpful dosage and interval of TMP-SMX remedy is TMP 15–20 mg/kg/day + SMX 75–100 mg/kg/day for 21 days for PJP in sufferers with HIV⁸ and a pair of–Three weeks for PJP in sufferers with strong organ transplantation.¹⁹ Nonetheless, proof from randomized managed trials supporting this dosage regime is missing. Thomas et al means that low dosage of TMP 10 mg/kg/day + SMX 50 mg/kg/day has comparable efficacy in HIV PJP.²¹ Tu et al additionally tried to deal with PJP utilizing low-dose SMX-TMP.¹⁰ We handled all of our renal transplantation recipients that acquired PJP with low-dose TMP-SMX for two–Three weeks and achieved good outcomes. The affected person and graft survival charges have been each 100% among the many 37 sufferers within the current research.

The most typical opposed occasions following SMX-TMP remedy are hematological negative effects, renal or hepatic dysfunction, and gastrointestinal discomfort.⁹ Tu et al handled two circumstances of PJP in renal transplant recipients with TMP-SMX on the preliminary dose of 240/1200 mg q8h, however the dose was decreased to 80/400 mg tid in a single case due to hepatic dysfunction and within the different case attributable to leukopenia.¹⁰ Equally, when Li et al gave sufferers oral TMP–SMX remedy at a dose of 1–6 g/kg divided over three administrations, the dosage of SMX was later decreased attributable to opposed reactions in some sufferers.⁹ Some printed research reported poor tolerability and excessive discontinuation charges even when SMX-TMP was used at 1 single-strength pill every day as PJP prophylaxis in kidney transplant recipients.^22–24 Within the current research, all of the eligible sufferers have been handled with TMP–SMX 480/2400mg or 240/1200mg per day divided into three doses, and solely 21.6% (8/37) of the sufferers skilled gastrointestinal signs, 5.4% (2/37) suffered hematologic negative effects, 2.7% (1/37) developed hyperkalemia, and a pair of.7% (1/37) skilled transient impairment in kidney operate. TMP–SMX was not decreased or discontinued for any affected person as a consequence of the opposed results. Due to this fact, the dose of TMP-SMX used in opposition to PJP in deceased donor kidney recipients within the current research supplied enough safety with a low incidence of opposed occasions.

TMP-SMX remedy alone can have an insufficient impact in opposition to some circumstances of PJP, as it’s much less efficient in opposition to the cystic type of P. jirovecii. Though trophic kinds represent 90–95% of all Pneumocystis life cycle levels, mature cysts might be detected within the bronchial lumen.^25,26 Caspofungin targets the synthesis of β-1,3-glucan, a significant part of the P. jirovecii cell wall and thereby is efficient for the remedy of PJP.^10,27 Mixture of low-dose TMP-SMX and caspofungin subsequently has a theoretical benefit of having the ability to goal all types of P. jirovecii. Earlier case stories have proven this mixture to be efficient within the remedy of extreme PJP and to allow the dose of TMP-SMX to be lowered, thereby reducing the incidence of TMP-SMX–associated opposed occasions.^10,28 Within the current research, all 37 PJP sufferers have been handled with low-dose TMP-SMX and caspofungin, and the mix demonstrated passable outcomes, which is consistent with earlier case stories.

There may be at the moment no consensus on the efficacy of adjunctive glucocorticoid remedy within the remedy of PJP in strong organ transplant recipients. The optimum dose and period are additionally elusive in circumstances of renal transplantation. In line with the American Society of Transplantation, glucocorticoids are really helpful to be administered inside 72 hours if PaO₂ drops under 70 mmHg.²⁰ Nonetheless, in scientific follow, adjunctive glucocorticoids are sometimes administered as quickly as attainable most often with an abrupt onset and poor prognosis.^9,10 Within the current research, all 37 PJP sufferers have been handled with methylprednisolone 20–40 mg twice every day through the early stage of the illness, as a substitute of ready till extreme hypoxia. The outcomes have been good, and solely 5.4% (2/37) of the sufferers later required invasive air flow.

Though it’s well-known that immunosuppression is the principle cause for PJP, the optimum technique for immunosuppression remains to be unclear. Most stories encourage the discount of immunosuppression as a normal measure through the remedy of PJP.²⁹ Tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil have been discontinued within the three circumstances of extreme PJP in renal transplant recipients reported by Tu et al¹⁰ and Goto et al⁸ initially solely discontinued mycophenolate mofetil for two–Three weeks however went on to discontinue each tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil briefly when PJP critically threatened the lifetime of the affected person. In our protocol, tacrolimus was continued and the trough focus was maintained at 5 ng/mL until the medicine needed to be stopped to save lots of the affected person’s life. Mycophenolate mofetil was decreased or discontinued relying on the severity of the sickness. Solely 2.7% (1/37) of the sufferers discontinued tacrolimus and 5.4% (2/37) discontinued mycophenolate mofetil within the current research. The grafts from deceased donors maintained good operate, and no rejection occurred throughout remedy.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the current research is a retrospective and non-randomized single-center research with no management group. We noticed good outcomes with a complete preemptive remedy regime together with low-dose TMP–SMX and caspofungin as antipathogenic remedy, third technology cephalosporin or carbapenems to stop bacterial an infection, and glucocorticoids as anti-inflammatories. Furthermore, immunosuppression was decreased when essential and oxygen inhalation or creative air flow was utilized to enhance hypoxemia. The outcomes recommend that low-dose TMP-SMX within the remedy of PJP in deceased donor kidney recipients is possible when given as part of this complete remedy regime.

Knowledge Sharing Assertion

The datasets used and/or analyzed through the present research can be found from the corresponding creator Hongyang Wang on cheap request.

Ethics Approval and Knowledgeable Consent

This research was accepted by the Ethics Committee of the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao College (Qingdao, China; no. QYFYWZLL 26483). All procedures involving human members have been in accordance with the moral requirements of the institutional and nationwide analysis committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethics requirements. Written knowledgeable consent was obtained from all particular person members included on this research.

Funding

There isn’t a funding to report.

Disclosure

The authors declare that they haven’t any competing pursuits.

References

1. Struijk GH, Gijsen AF, Yong SL, et al. Danger of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in sufferers lengthy after renal transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2011;26(10):3391–3398. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfr048

2. Rodriguez M, Fishman JA. Prevention of an infection attributable to Pneumocystis spp. in human immunodeficiency virus-negative immunocompromised sufferers. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(4):770–782, desk of contents. doi:10.1128/cmr.17.4.770-782.2004

3. Neff RT, Jindal RM, Yoo DY, Hurst FP, Agodoa LY, Abbott KC. Evaluation of USRDS: incidence and threat elements for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia. Transplantation. 2009;88(1):135–141. doi:10.1097/TP.0b013e3181aad256

4. Eitner F, Hauser IA, Rettkowski O, et al. Danger elements for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PcP) in renal transplant recipients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2011;26(6):2013–2017. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfq689

5. Thomas CF, Limper AH. Pneumocystis pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(24):2487–2498. doi:10.1056/NEJMra032588

6. Stern A, Inexperienced H, Paul M, Vidal L, Leibovici L. Prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in non-HIV immunocompromised sufferers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2014(10):Cd005590. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005590.pub3

7. European finest follow tips for renal transplantation. Part IV: long-term administration of the transplant recipient. IV.7.1 late infections. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002;17(Suppl 4):36–39. doi:10.1093/ndt/17.suppl_4.36-a

8. Goto N, Futamura Okay, Okada M, et al. Administration of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in kidney transplantation to stop additional outbreak. Clin Med Insights Circ Respir Pulm Med. 2015;9(Suppl 1):81–90. doi:10.4137/ccrpm.s23317

9. Li T, Shi J, Xu F, Xu X. Medical traits of pneumocystis pneumonia after parental renal transplantation. Infect Drug Resist. 2020;13:81–88. doi:10.2147/idr.s234039

10. Tu GW, Ju MJ, Xu M, et al. Mixture of caspofungin and low-dose trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole for the remedy of extreme Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in renal transplant recipients. Nephrology (Carlton). 2013;18(11):736–742. doi:10.1111/nep.12133

11. Chai YX, Ji JL, Li SJ, et al. Efficacy of anti-T-lymphocyte globulin-Fresenius as an induction agent in deceased-donor renal transplantation: a cohort research. Exp Ther Med. 2020;19(3):2384–2390. doi:10.3892/etm.2020.8451

12. Kasiske BL, Zeier MG, Chapman JR, et al. KDIGO scientific follow guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients: a abstract. Kidney Int. 2010;77(4):299–311. doi:10.1038/ki.2009.377

13. Chadban SJ, Barraclough KA, Campbell SB, et al. KHA-CARI guideline: KHA-CARI adaptation of the KDIGO scientific follow guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients. Nephrology (Carlton). 2012;17(3):204–214. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1797.2011.01559.x

14. Borstnar S, Lindic J, Tomazic J, et al. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in renal transplant recipients: a nationwide heart expertise. Transplant Proc. 2013;45(4):1614–1617. doi:10.1016/j.transproceed.2013.02.107

15. Costa JM, Botterel F, Cabaret O, Foulet F, Cordonnier C, Bretagne S. Affiliation between circulating DNA, serum (1->3)-β-D-glucan, and pulmonary fungal burden in Pneumocystis pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(2):e5–8. doi:10.1093/cid/cis412

16. Corsi-Vasquez G, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Pilkington EF, Sax PE, Caliendo AM. Level-counterpoint: ought to serum β-d glucan testing be used for the prognosis of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia? J Clin Microbiol. 2019;58(1). doi:10.1128/jcm.01340-19

17. de Boer MG, Kroon FP, le Cessie S, de Fijter JW, van Dissel JT. Danger elements for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in kidney transplant recipients and appraisal of methods for selective use of chemoprophylaxis. Transpl Infect Dis. 2011;13(6):559–569. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3062.2011.00645.x

18. Muhammad Iqbal AH, Lim SK, Ng KP, Tan LP, Chong YB, Keng TC. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia 13 years submit renal transplant following a recurrent cytomegalovirus an infection. Transpl Infect Dis. 2012;14(4):E23–E26. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3062.2012.00738.x

19. Martin SI, Fishman JA. Pneumocystis pneumonia in strong organ transplantation. Am J Transplant. 2013;13(Suppl 4):272–279. doi:10.1111/ajt.12119

20. White PL, Worth JS, Backx M. Remedy and administration of Pneumocystis jirovecii an infection. J Fungi (Basel). 2018;4(4). doi:10.3390/jof4040127

21. Thomas M, Rupali P, Woodhouse A, Ellis-Pegler R. Good final result with trimethoprim 10 mg/kg/day-sulfamethoxazole 50 mg/kg/day for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in HIV contaminated sufferers. Scand J Infect Dis. 2009;41(11–12):862–868. doi:10.3109/00365540903214256

22. Gabardi S, Millen P, Hurwitz S, Martin S, Roberts Okay, Chandraker A. Atovaquone versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia prophylaxis following renal transplantation. Clin Transplant. 2012;26(3):E184–190. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0012.2012.01624.x

23. Giullian JA, Cavanaugh Okay, Schaefer H. Decrease threat of urinary tract an infection with low-dose trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in comparison with dapsone prophylaxis in older renal transplant sufferers on a speedy steroid-withdrawal immunosuppression routine. Clin Transplant. 2010;24(5):636–642. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0012.2009.01129.x

24. Mitsides N, Greenan Okay, Inexperienced D, et al. Issues and outcomes of trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole as chemoprophylaxis for pneumocystis pneumonia in renal transplant recipients. Nephrology (Carlton). 2014;19(3):157–163. doi:10.1111/nep.12201

25. Aliouat-Denis CM, Martinez A, Aliouat El M, Pottier M, Gantois N, Dei-Cas E. The Pneumocystis life cycle. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(3):419–426. doi:10.1590/s0074-02762009000300004

26. Dei-Cas E. Pneumocystis infections: the iceberg? Med Mycol. 2000;38(Suppl 1):23–32. doi:10.1080/mmy.38.s1.23.32

27. Armstrong-James D, Stebbing J, John L, et al. A trial of caspofungin salvage remedy in PCP pneumonia. Thorax. 2011;66(6):537–538. doi:10.1136/thx.2010.135350

28. Koshy R, Chen T. Mixture remedy with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and caspofungin in a case of extreme pneumocystis pneumonia. IDCases. 2019;15:e00496. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2019.e00496

29. Kasiske B, Zeier M, Craig J, et al. KDIGO scientific follow guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2009;9(Suppl 3):S1–155. doi:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02834.x